Elevation

High elevation locations can favour the quality of grapes for winemaking, as they allow the ripening process to develop slowly. Viticulturists can take advantage of the adiabatic effect since elevation can produce a decrease in temperature ranging from 0.60 to 0.65 °C per 100 m of elevation. However, towards the end of the century, climatic models predict a decrease of 0.41 to 0.49 °C per 100 m of elevation¹. Grapes produced in high elevation vineyards are usually balanced in terms of acidity, nitrogen, phenolic and volatile compounds, and soluble solids content². These characteristics favour the production of wines with low alcoholic degrees and high aromatic quality, acidity and freshness. Nonetheless, some landscape characteristics can cause climatic distortions, interrupting the continuity of elevation-related cooling, such as lack of precipitation, low cloudiness and strong solar radiation, which are typical of some viticultural regions³. Elevation is one of the main factors to affect bud break and bloom dates in alpine environments, influencing grapevine response and acrotony phenomenon. As the vineyard elevation increases, phenological events have a longer duration and may produce a difference of up to 21 days in terms of harvest date⁴. This information could be critical in the future since for the 2021-2099 period, harvest timing could decrease by 3 days per 100 m, causing a more concentrated harvest window⁵.

Latitude

Climate change has also affected grapevine variety distribution in different wine growing regions. Bioclimatic indices suggest that climate change will have negative effects on vine cultivation in southern Europe, while in central and western Europe it could benefit wine quality and allow new areas to be used for viticulture⁶. Similar effects are observed in Chile, in which vineyard plantation is moving south; for example, vineyard surface in Araucanía Region (37°35' to 39°37’ South latitude) increased by 953 % from 2003-2020. Although latitude can affect the thermal conditions of grapevine development, its effect within a specific area is practically null, but it could be of interest if viticulturists want to experiment and study new terroirs with territorial identity.

Slope

Slope can affect water movement and erosion, soil drainage, ease of working among grapevines, mechanisation and ease of harvest. Flat vineyards may be prone to cold air inversions in zones with spring cold frost, while a 5-7.5 % slope allows a good air drainage (Figure 1)⁷. Slope may increase erosion and mechanisation concerns due to the risk of rollover, as well as make grapevine management more difficult. Radiation received by grapevines can be determined by slope direction and steepness, along with vineyard elevation.

Figure 1. Effect of topography on air temperature stratification during a radiational cooling period characterized by calm winds and clear skies. Figure published by Barclay Poling⁸.

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Late ripening varieties

Grapevine variety can strongly influence grape ripening, with a difference of close to 2 months having been recorded between the earliest and latest ripening of the varieties of DOCa Rioja (Table 1). Thus, some winegrowing regions should incorporate a higher proportion of late maturing grapevine varieties. In DOCa Rioja, the crop area of Graciano, Mazuelo and Garnacha should probably be increased. In Bordeaux, the proportion of Cabernet Sauvignon should be increased since it matures 2 weeks later than Merlot. In Chilean Central Valley, the proportion of Carménère should probably be increased rather than Cabernet Sauvignon, since it has a late maturation cycle, such as Petit Verdot and Mourvèdre.

Rootstock selection

Rootstocks have a slight influence on the phenological cycle of the scion; it is estimated that the difference in terms of harvest date altered by rootstocks is around 2 and 6 days, depending on vineyard yield. Some rootstocks, such as 110 Richter, 140-Ruggeri and 1103 Paulsen, have been reported as being well adapted to thermal conditions and may provide a long-vegetative cycle compared to Riparia rootstocks⁹.

Minority and autochthonous varieties

The disappearance of a wide number of vine varieties and the homogenisation of the wine industry has caused a genetic vulnerability with respect to acclimation to abiotic and biotic stress, to which these varieties are not well adapted. Minority and autochthonous varieties have many genetic resources that would ensure better performance against global warming and resistance to pests and diseases. In DOCa Rioja, the most interesting red minority grapevine varieties that achieve high acidy and low pH are Garnacha Roya, Alicante Bouschet Trepat, Morate and Agawan, and the most interesting white grapevine varieties are Maturana Blanca and Garnacha Blanca (Table 1). Based on this, winemakers should consider these exceptional opportunities to bring a wide range of wine styles with a distinctive identity to the wine market.

Notes

• Alikadic, A., Pertot, I., Eccel, E., Dolci, C., Zarbo, C., Caffarra, A., De Filippi, R., Furlanello, C. (2019). The impact of climate change on grapevine phenology and the influence of altitude: A regional study. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 271, 73–82.
• Gutiérrez-Gamboa, G., Zheng, W., & Martínez de Toda, F. (2021). Current viticultural techniques to mitigate the effects of global warming on grape and wine quality: A comprehensive review. Food Research International, 139, 109946.
• Martínez de Toda, F., & Ramos, M. (2019). Variability in grape composition and phenology of ‘Tempranillo’ in zones located at different elevations and with differences in the climatic conditions. Vitis, 58(4), 131–139.
• Gutiérrez-Gamboa, G., Pszczólkowski, P., Cañón, P., Taquichiri, M., Peñarrieta, J.M. (2021). UV-B radiation as a factor that deserves further research in Bolivian viticulture: A review. South African Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 40(2), 201–212.
• Alikadic, A., Pertot, I., Eccel, E., Dolci, C., Zarbo, C., Caffarra, A., De Filippi, R., Furlanello, C. (2019). The impact of climate change on grapevine phenology and the influence of altitude: A regional study. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 271, 73–82.
• Malheiro, A., Santos, J., Fraga, H., Pinto. J. (2010). Climate change scenarios applied to viticultural zoning in Europe. Climate Research, 43, 163–177.
• Barclay Poling, E. (2008). Spring cold injury to winegrapes and protection strategies and methods. HortScience, 43(6), 1652–1662.
• Barclay Poling, E. (2008). Spring cold injury to winegrapes and protection strategies and methods. HortScience, 43(6), 1652–1662.
• Corso, M., Bonghi, C. (2014). Grapevine rootstock effects on abiotic stress tolerance. Plant Science Today, 1, 108–113.
• Santos, J.A., Fraga, H., Malheiro, A.C., Moutinho-Pereira, J., Dinis, L.-T., Correia, C., et al. (2020). A review of the potential climate change impacts and adaptation options for European viticulture. Appled Science, 10, 3092.
• Santos, J.A., Fraga, H., Malheiro, A.C., Moutinho-Pereira, J., Dinis, L.-T., Correia, C., et al. (2020). A review of the potential climate change impacts and adaptation options for European viticulture. Appled Science, 10, 3092.
• Hunter, J.J., Volschenk, C.G., Booyse, M. (2017). Vineyard row orientation and grape ripeness level effects on vegetative and reproductive growth characteristics of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Shiraz/101-14 Mgt. European Journal of Agronomy, 84, 47–57.
• Hunter, J.J., Tarricone, L., Volschenk, C., Giacalone, C., Melo, M.S., Zorer, R. (2020). Grapevine physiological response to row orientation-induced spatial radiation and microclimate changes. OENO One, 54(2), 411–433.